These effects include miscarriages, congenital malformations, preterm birth, stillbirth, and neonatal morbidity

These effects include miscarriages, congenital malformations, preterm birth, stillbirth, and neonatal morbidity. transmission, cytomegalovirus, hepatitis virus, herpes simplex type-2 virus, parvovirus B19 virus, rubella virus, varicella and zika virus == 1. Introduction == Infections are Histone Acetyltransferase Inhibitor II common in pregnancy, but most have no effect on either the mother or the fetus. Where these have consequences, some can be devastating not only for the mother but also for the fetus if infected. Micro-organisms responsible for these infections include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and fungi [1,2]. Viruses are the most common of these micro-organisms. They are small obligate intracellular parasites which can either be enveloped or non-enveloped. Structurally they consist of nucleic acid and proteins which make up a complete virus particle known as the virion. The nucleic acid which is either RNA or DNA is usually in the centre, surrounded by a protein coat called the capsid. The combined nucleic acid and this protein coat is referred to as the nucleocapsid. Although some viruses may only consist of this nucleic acid and protein coat (non-enveloped viruses), others have an additional membrane envelope surrounding the nucleocapsid (enveloped viruses). On the surface of some of these enveloped viruses are protein spikes that help attach the virus to the host.Figure 1shows the differences between enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. == Figure 1. == Cartoon of typical enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Note that these do not reflect all the different forms of DNA/RNA (which maybe Double/single strained, circular linear etc. The effects of viral infections on the mother vary from none to severe consequences including maternal death. The most common severe effects include manifestation of generalised inflammation, respiratory failure, encephalitis, and multiorgan failure. The fetal consequences of viral infections depend on the gestational age at which the fetus is infected. In early pregnancy (especially in the early first trimester), infections that affect the fetus may either cause miscarriages or act as teratogens causing a variety of congenital malformations [3]. Some infections acquired in-utero may not cause congenital malformations but may cause significant neonatal Histone Acetyltransferase Inhibitor II Histone Acetyltransferase Inhibitor II morbidity. Most infections acquired in late pregnancy have a Rabbit polyclonal to LDLRAD3 benign course, but some may cause significant morbidity and sometimes mortality in the neonatal and childhood periods. For those acquired intrapartum from cervico-vaginal secretions or postpartum, the onset of symptoms is related to the timing of the acquisition of the viruses as well as its incubation period (for example, the symptoms may not manifest for a few days or even weeks after delivery). The spectrum of the consequences of infections therefore varies from no effect to miscarriage to congenital malformations and fetal growth restriction to postpartum sequelae (which Histone Acetyltransferase Inhibitor II include symptoms of the infections) [1,2].Figure 2shows an overview of the effects of viral infections in pregnancy. == Figure 2. == Overview of the effects of viral infections in pregnancy on the mother and fetus/neonate. Vertical transmission Histone Acetyltransferase Inhibitor II (from the mother to the fetus) occurs through one of three ways: transplacental, intrapartum, or through breastfeeding. While the exact mechanism of transplacental transfer for most of these infections is unknown, the localisation/identification of the RNA or virion particles in the placenta/trophoblast from pregnant women infected with viruses indicates that these viruses do indeed get to the placenta prior to reaching the fetus.